水 瓶 物 語 ™

Flaw

9．FLAW IN THE REASONING
看原文：找出原文錯誤
找答案：描述原文錯誤的為答案。描述的因素原文沒有的為錯誤答案
TEST：描述原文的推理錯誤，每個元素都必須在原文出現過。

Which of the following indicates a flaw in the reasoning above?

26. The average normal infant born in the United States weighs between twelve and fourteen pounds at the age of three months. Therefore, if a three-month-old child weighs only ten pounds, its weight gain has been below the United States average.

average weitht gain：平均增重。average weight平均重量

第1句提到average weight  第2句提到weight gain

A.Weight is only one measure of normal infant development.

B.some three-month-old children weigh as much as seventeen pounds.

C,it is possible for a normal child to weigh ten pounds at birth.

D.the phrase "below average "does not necessarily mean insufficient.

E.average weight gain is not the same as average weight.正確  指出其缺點

The argument above is flawed in that it ignores the possibility that

44. Some people have questioned the judge's objectivity in cases of sex discrimination against women. But the record shows that in sixty percent of such cases, the judge has decided in favor of the women. This record demonstrates that the judge has not discriminated against women in cases of sex discrimination against women.

 有一些人質疑法官對女性有歧視，但就統計來看，這位法官有60%的案子是判給對女人有利的，因此證據指明，這位法官並未有歧視女性的行為出現

A. a large number of the judge's cases arouse out of allegations of sex discrimination against women.無關
B. many judges find it difficult to be objective in cases of sex discrimination against women
法官發現很多這類案子很難保證客觀。（不客觀的結果是雙向的，即偏向女性或反之.) 與論證過程無關
C. The judge is biased against women defendants or plaintiffs in cases that do not involve sex discrimination
法官對於不涉及性別歧視的案子中的女上訴者有歧視
D.The majority of the cases of sex discrimination against women that have reached the judges court have been appealed from a lower court
是否是從下層法院上訴過來的與原文沒有關係
E. The evidence shows that the women should have won in more than 60 percent of the judges cases involving sex discrimination against women. 有證據顯示女人應該勝訴的機率超過六成 (間接指出法官讓許多婦女該贏未贏，削弱了原題推論)

Which of the following statements about Nice College's current qualified applicants, if true, would strongly suggest that the administrators' plan is flawed?

47. On the basis of a decrease in the college-age population, many colleges now anticipate increasingly smaller freshman classes each year. Surprised by a 40 percent increase in qualified applicants over the previous year, however, administrators at Nice College now plan to hire more faculties for courses taken by all freshmen.

由於適齡大學生人口的下降，許多大學預計新生班的人數將逐年減少。然而，nice大學的管理人員驚訝地發現合格申請者的人數比上一年增加了40％，所以nice大學打算僱用更多的老師來教導新生。

題干認為申請者的人數增加，必然意味著入學新生人數的增加。

A. A substantially higher percentage than usual plan to study for advanced degrees after graduation from college.無關

B. According to their applications, their level of participation in extracurricular activities and varsity sports is unusually high.無關

C. According to their applications, none of them lives in a foreign country.無關

D. A substantially lower percentage than usual rate Nice College as their first choice among the colleges to which they are applying.

然而d指出由於該校不是申請者的首選，其人數的增加不一定增加新生人數

E. A substantially lower percentage than usual list mathematics as their intended major.無關

Which of the following, if true, points to the most serious flaw of a plan to develop a medication that would prevent asthma attacks by blocking receipt of any messages sent by the messenger molecules referred to above?

59.Certain messenger molecules fight damage to the lungs from noxious air by telling the muscle cells encircling the lungs' airways to contract. This partially seals off the lungs. An asthma attack occurs when the messenger molecules are activated unnecessarily, in response to harmless things like pollen or household dust.

為了防止肺部遭受毒氣損傷，一些messenger molecules會讓環繞肺部通氣管周圍的肌肉收縮。這樣可以使得肺部部分封閉。但是，如果這些messenger molecules過於敏感，甚至對於像花粉和灰塵這樣的無害物也起反應時，人們就會得哮喘。

(A) Researchers do not yet know how the body produces the messenger molecules that trigger asthma attacks.

跟如何產生這些分子的無關（要找的是它們如何作用的）

(B) Researchers do not yet know what makes one person's messenger molecules more easily activated than another's.

跟如何激活這些分子無關

(C) Such a medication would not become available for several years, because of long lead times in both development and manufacture.

藥品上市所需時間長不能就說藥理沒有作用

(D) Such a medication would be unable to distinguish between messages triggered by pollen and household dust and messages triggered by noxious air.正確

題目問的是阻止發病的藥理，跟發病後藥能否減輕病症無關（注意題目要求的特殊性）

The objection implied above to the productivity measure described is based on doubts about the truth of which of the following statements?

反對者通過對下面那一個陳述的懷疑,來反對原文所描述的測量生產率的方法

對「效率評定標準」持反對意見的人將其觀點建立在對下面哪個理論（即選項）「真實性」的懷疑上？

65. Correctly measuring the productivity of service workers is complex. Consider, for example, postal workers: they are often said to be more productive if more letters are delivered per postal worker. But is this really true? What if more letters are lost or delayed per worker at the same time that more are delivered?

可以將它當作REASONING TECHNIQUE，即反對者如何反對原文所描述的測量生產率的方法。

(A) Postal workers are representative of service workers in general.無關

(B) The delivery of letters is the primary activity of the postal service.無關

(C) Productivity should be ascribed to categories of workers, not to individuals.無關

(D) The quality of services rendered can appropriately be ignored in computing productivity.服務的質在計算生產力時可以被適當的忽略

(E) The number of letters delivered is relevant to measuring the productivity of postal workers.

73. "Fast cycle time" is a strategy of designing a manufacturing organization to eliminate bottlenecks and delays in production. Not only does it speed up production, but it also assures quality. The reason is that the bottlenecks and delays cannot be eliminated unless all work is done right the first time.

前提說：fast cycle time可以消除bottlenecks和delays，又fast cycle time有兩個好處：一個是加速，一個是確保品質。

結論說：bottlenecks和delays不能被消除，除非第一次就做正確

=====>第一次就做正確，bottlenecks和delays就能被消除

=====>沒有錯誤，bottlenecks和delays就能被消除

衍生出來的假設是：第一個==>有錯誤就不能消除bottlenecks和delays(從結論來)

第二個==>fast cycle time 可以消除錯誤(從前提來)

合併出來的答案就是A

(A) any flaw in work on a product would cause a bottleneck or delay and so would be prevented from occurring on a "fast cycle" production line

The claim about quality:如果都沒有bottlenecks and delays的話，生產就可以沒問題的完成-->確保品質
但是以上的claim是建立在一個有問題的假設立場: 所有產品如果有瑕疵都會產生bottlenecks and delays，也就會防止出現於fast cycle time的生產線 這個假設是有問題的，因為很有可能產品有瑕疵，但是沒有產生bottlenecks and delays，還是出現於fast cycle time，這樣的話品質就不保了。

(B) the strategy of "fast cycle time" would require fundamental rethinking of product design.

(C) the primary goal of the organization is to produce a product of unexcelled quality, rather than to generate profits for stockholders

(D) "fast cycle time" could be achieved by shaving time off each of the component processes in production cycle

(E) "fast cycle time" is a concept in business strategy that has not yet been put into practice in a factory

閱讀測驗: 關鍵字 = presupposition => 題目裡一定有提過  只有 (A) 講的是題目提過的東西 (flaw in work cause bottleneck, delay)
(B) rethinking of product design 題目沒有,不是 presupposition
(C) stockholders 題目沒有,不是 presupposition
(D) shaving time off each of the component processes 題目沒有,不是 presupposition
(E) not yet been put into practice in a factory 與題目相反,不是 presupposition

Which of the following statements, if true, provides the best evidence that the mayor's reasoning is flawed?

77. A certain mayor has proposed a fee of five dollars per day on private vehicles entering the city, claiming that the fee will alleviate the city's traffic congestion. The mayor reasons that, since the fee will exceed the cost of round-trip bus fare from many nearby points, many people will switch from using their cars to using the bus.

這一題是要provides the best evidence that the mayor's reasoning is flawed,
題目是指，mayor提議「對於要進城的私人車輛，每天收五元，這樣就可以減輕城中的塞車。因為這五元就比坐公車進城的費用貴，所以開車的人就會換成坐公車。」
選項B是說「在城中的停車費就已經使人開車比坐公車貴了」-->言下之意，開車本來就比坐公車貴，但是大家還是開車進城，所以mayor的提議是無用的。

(A) Projected increases in the price of gasoline will increase the cost of taking a private vehicle into the city.

(B) The cost of parking fees already makes it considerably more expensive for most people to take a private vehicle into the city than to take a bus.

(C) Most of the people currently riding the bus do not own private vehicles.

(D) Many commuters opposing the mayor's plan have indicated that they would rather endure traffic congestion than pay a five-dollar-per day fee.你要說他沒有否定也不對 他的確是否定了果, 就是大家不會switch  但是他沒有攻擊到因, 因為他的理由是, 大家寧願塞車-->與成本無關
所以D沒有B強烈

(E) During the average workday, private vehicles owned and operated by people living within the city account for twenty percent of the city's traffic congestion.

 Which of the following challenges indicates the most serious weakness in the attempted explanation described above?

79. When hypnotized subjects are told that they are deaf and are then asked whether they can hear the hypnotist, they reply, 「No.」 Some theorists try to explain this result by arguing that the selves of hypnotized subjects are dissociated into separate parts, and that the part that is deaf is dissociated from the part that replies.
我覺得(A)選項weaken原文以下的推論:
the part that is deaf is dissociated from the part that replies.
也就是說,some theorists認為the deaf part和the hearing part(that replies)應該是毫無關聯的,所以the hearing part負責聽與回答,並不知道有the deaf part的存在. The hypnotized subjects回答"No"是不是就表示因為the hearing part is associated with the deaf part? 顯然應該是要回答"Yes"才是合理且支持some theorists' argument.   所以(A)選項可以戳破原文some theorists' argument.

(A) Why does the part that replies not answer, "Yes"?

(B) Why are the observed facts in need of any special explanation?

(C) Why do the subjects appear to accept the hypnotist's suggestion that they are deaf?

(D) Why do hypnotized subjects all respond the same way in the situation described?

(E) Why are the separate parts of the self the same for all subjects?

按照題中假設，被催眠的部分1和實驗中回答的部分2是分隔的不同部分，2回答（no）是基於1受到催眠（被暗示deaf）後推理得來的回答。2回答no，實際上2是聽到的，2沒有受到催眠，因為2回答了。可以證實回答的部分2是聽到了。

但 是這個回答no，與上述被催眠的部分1和實驗中回答的部分2是不同部分且互相分割開來是矛盾的。如果是分割開來的，那回答的部分2對於被催眠的部分1是無 法瞭解和溝通的。他不可能依據被催眠的部分1的狀態來回答。而應根據他自己部分（2）的狀況回答，而2聽到了問話，2不是deaf，他應該回答的是 yes。

答案問為什麼2不回答yes，指出了上述矛盾。

要弄清題干的幾個定義：deaf part指知道自己聾不聾的那部分（不是聽不聽見那部分），reply part指聽見了產生反應的部分，這部分可能受deaf part 和生理反射兩個支配。dissociate指兩個部分不互相影響，沒有因果關係。

沒有dissociate時，被告知聾後deaf part 應為YES，然後問聽見沒有，reply部分收deaf part支配應為NO。

dissociate時，被告知聾後deaf part 應為YES，然後問聽見沒有，reply部分受生理反射支配應為YES。

題干的情況屬於1，A選項正好滿足第2種情

Which of the following points to the most serious logical flaw in the reviewers' argument?

128. Reviewer: The book Art's Decline argues that European painters today lack skills that were common among European painters of preceding centuries. In this the book must be right, since its analysis of 100 paintings, 50 old and 50 contemporary, demonstrates convincingly that none of the contemporary paintings are executed as skillfully as the older paintings.
對於這一類關於論述的邏輯缺陷的題，是否應著眼於作者的推論過程的缺陷，而非結論的正確性。
完全正確。默認所有的結論和假設都是正確的，logic flaw題只看論證過程。

(A) The paintings chosen by the book's author for analysis could be those that most support the book's thesis.正確

(B) There could be criteria other than the technical skill of the artist by which to evaluate a painting.

b無關，因為文中沒有說使用technical criteria來評判。

(C) The title of the book could cause readers to accept the book's thesis even before they read the analysis of the paintings that supports it.

無關

(D) The particular methods currently used by European painters could require less artistic skill than do methods used by painters in other parts of the world.

(E) A reader who was not familiar with the language of art criticism might not be convinced by the book's analysis of the 100 paintings.

Which of the following, if true, is the best criticism of the pamphlet as a method of achieving the public health officials' goal?

152. Mouth cancer is a danger for people who rarely brush their teeth. In order to achieve early detection of mouth cancer in these individuals, a town's public health officials sent a pamphlet to all town residents, describing how to perform weekly self-examinations of the mouth for lumps腫塊.

原文結論講的是detection of mouth cancer ，A講的是Many dental diseases ，不一定包括mouth cancer

(A) Many dental diseases produce symptoms that cannot be detected in a weekly self-examination.可以歸類為無關

(B) Once mouth cancer has been detected, the effectiveness of treatment can vary from person to person.感染傳遞無關

(C) The pamphlet was sent to all town residents, including those individuals who brush their teeth regularly.

(D) Mouth cancer is much more common in adults than in children.

(E) People who rarely brush their teeth are unlikely to perform a weekly examination of their mouth.正確

The candy manufacturer's response is flawed as a refutation of the consumer health advocate's argument because it

181.Consumer health advocate: Your candy company adds caffeine to your chocolate candy bars so that each one delivers a specified amount of caffeine. Since caffeine is highly addictive, this indicates that you intend to keep your customers addicted. 

Candy manufacturer: Our manufacturing process results in there being less caffeine in each chocolate candy bar than in the unprocessed cacao beans from which the chocolate is made.

製造商答非所問

The rebuttal is that the caffeine added is restoring to the product caffeine that was lost during manufacture

(A) fails to address the issue of whether the level of caffeine in the candy bars sold by the manufacture is enough to keep people addicted

正確

(B) assumes without warrant that all unprocessed cacao beans contain a uniform amount of caffeine

(C) does not specify exactly how caffeine is lost in the manufacturing process

(D) treats the consumer heal advocate's argument as though it were about each candy bar rather than about the manufacturer's candy in general

(E) merely contradicts the consumer health advocate's conclusion without giving any reason to believe that the advocate's reasoning is unsound

204.An eyeglass manufacturer tried to boost sales for the summer quarter by offering its distributors a special discount if their orders for that quarter exceeded those for last year's summer quarter by at least 20 percent. Many distributors qualified for this discount. Even with much merchandise discounted, sales increased enough to produce a healthy gain in net profits. The manufacturer plans to repeat this success by offering the same sort of discount for the fall quarter.

  E是說，今年夏天，經銷商訂了很多的貨，可以存放到秋天慢慢賣。由於生產商提出回扣的方法，所以會導致很多經銷商為了拿到回扣，訂了比往年多20%的貨 品，多下來的存貨秋天賣。所以，如果生產商根據今年夏天的訂貨狀況來繼續推出discount計劃到秋天，那就會存在問題。因為大部分的經銷商可能不會在 秋天再定購很多貨品了，因為他們有夏天的存貨。由此指出了生產商的計劃是有缺陷的。

(A) In general, a distributor's orders for the summer quarter are no higher than those for the spring quarter.

(B) Along with offering special discounts to qualifying distributors, the manufacturer increased newspaper and radio advertising in those distributors' sales areas.

(C) The distributors most likely to qualify for the manufacturer's special discount are those whose orders were unusually low a year earlier.

(D) The distributors how qualified for the manufacturer's special discount were free to decide how much of that discount to pass on to their own customers.

(E) The distributors' ordering more goods in the summer quarter left them overstocked for the fall quarter.

原文的結論是to offer the same sort of discount can lead to a success in the fall quater.

A: 無效比較，和春季無關。

B: 有加強的效果。

C: 和分銷商是誰無關。

D: 只和分銷商進不進貨有關，和其怎麼賣貨無關（白癡原則）。

E: 有折扣，分銷商也不進貨，切斷了折扣和秋季成功之間的聯繫。正確答案。